Infraorder
Superfamily
Family
Subfamily
Genus
Catarrhini
Cercopithecoidea
Hominoidea
Hylobatidae
Cercopithecidea
Hominidae
Cercopithecinae
Colobinae
Ponginae
Homininae
Allenopithecus
Miopithecus
Erythrocebus
Chlorocebus
Cercopithecus
Macaca
Mandrillus
Cercocebus
Lophocebus
Rungwecebus
Theropithecus
Procolobus
Piliocolobus
Colobus
Semnopithecus
Trachypithecus
Presbytis
Nasalis
Simias
Pygathrix
Rhinopithecus
Hoolock
Nomascus
Hylobates
Symphalangus
Pongo
Gorilla
Pan
Papio
Homo
Anthropoidea includes New and Old World monkeys, apes and humans. Fossil evidence suggests the earliest Anthropoids date to the mid-Eocene and early Oligocene in Asia and Africa. Unlike prosimians, anthropoids have a fused mandibular symphysis and frontal bone, complete prostorbital closure, larger brain, and shorter snout. Anthropoids rely less on smell than on sight and are primarily diurnal. Most anthropoids have a 2.1.2.3 or 2.1.3.3 dental formula, less procumbent incisors, hypocones on the upper molars, and semimolariform lower premolars. Some anthropoid groups exhibit canine sexual dimorphism, and nearly all have nails instead of claws.
Catarrhini is comprised of Old World monkeys (Cercopithecoidea) and apes (Hominoidea). Catarrhines first appear in the late Eocene and early Oligocene in Africa, with Cercopithecoids and "apes" distinguished by the Miocene when apes radiated into Eurasia. Catarrhines are distinguished from platyrrhines by several specializations, including narrower nostrils, contact between the frontal and sphenoid bones, and an extended bony ear tube. Catarrhines have a 2.1.2.3. dental formula. All Old World monkeys, gibbons, and some chimpanzees have ischial tuberosities and sitting pads. Catarrhines lack an entepicondylar foramen on the humerus.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
The earliest cercopithecoids, or Old World monkeys, are African in origin and date to the early Miocene. Extant cercopithecoids are more taxonomically diverse than hominoids, and are the most widespread of all nonhuman primates. While initially viewed as primitive catarrhines, cercopithecoids are now appreciated as being quite derived and specialized in their own regard. Compared to hominoids, cercopithecoids have reduced or absent maxillary sinuses and relatively narrow nasal aperture. Cercopithecoids have bilophodont lower molars, long trunks, narrow elbow joints, and relatively long olecranon processes. Many members have a long tail.
Citations: Fleagle 1999, Stewart and Disotell 1998
Hominoids are taxonomically less diverse than cercopithecoids. The earliest fossils were found in late Oligocene and early Miocene deposits in East Africa, with most hominoids extinct in the late Miocene. Hominoids exhibit all catarrhine characteristics, but are distinguished from Old World monkeys by a broader nasal region and palate, and larger brains. Hominoids have rounded cusps, large hypocones on upper molars, and a "Y" pattern on lower molars. Compared to Old World monkeys, hominoids have relatively long arms with short elbows (olecranon process). They have broad thoraces, a relatively short lumbar region, a broad ilium, broad femoral condyles and a robust hallux.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Of the two subfamilies in Cercopithecoidea, Cercopithecinae and Colobinae are distinguished by dietary adaptations, with the former more frugivorous and the later more folivorous. Molecular evidence suggests these two groups probably diverged around 14 million years ago.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Hominidae are the great apes, and include four genera: Pongo, Gorilla, Pan and Homo. The only nonhuman great ape from Asia is the orangutan; all other ages - Gorillas, chimpanzees and bonobos - are from Africa. Like gibbons, the great apes lack a tail, have broad thoraces and long arms. However, they are distinguished from the gibbons in having much larger body sizes, increased sexual dimorphism, a robust canine, broad ilia, and a robust fibula. They also are more terrestrial than gibbons, especially the African apes which rely predominately on terrestrial, quadrupedal knuckle-walking. Pongo is more arboreal than the African apes, but do walk on their fist ("fist-walking") when terrestrial.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
The Hylobatids are the smallest apes, found in Southeast Asia and parts of Indonesia. While they retain many monkey-like features that in part bestow on them the title "lesser apes", they are highly specialized in some anatomical and behavioral aspects. For example, their extremely long forelimbs relative to their hindlimbs relate to specialized locomotor styles including a rapid form of brachiation known as "ricochetal" brachiation. Among the apes, gibbons are the only group that consistently exhibit ischial callosities, relatively longer lumbar vertebral column, and no sexual dimorphism.
Citations: Fleagle 1999, and Geissman 2002
Cercopithecines are found in Africa, with one genus, Macaca, radiated to Asia and parts of Europe. Group members range widely in body size and degree of arboreality. Cercopithecines are recognizable by their bilophodont lower molars, narrow nose and palate, and relatively long trunk. However, compared to colobines, cercopithecines are considered more generalized in their morphology and diet. They have a narrower interorbital region and broader incisors than colobines. They have a shallow jaw, low cusped molars, and a "simple" unspecialized stomach for eating a variety of foods. The fore- and hind-limbs of cercopithecines are more similar in length than those of colobines.
Citations: Fleagle 1999, and Harris 2000
Colobines are the leaf-eating cercopithecoids, separated into the colobus monkeys (Africa) and the langurs (Asia). Colobines are considered to be more anatomically specialized compared to cercopithecines, and are easily distinguished from the latter by their sharp-cusped molars and relatively narrow incisors. Their crania exhibit a broader interorbital region, and their jaws are deeper compared to cercopithecines. Postcranially, they have relatively longer legs, and short or absent thumbs. They also have a complex, sacculated stomach (like a cow) that houses bacterial colonies for digesting complex cellulose. In general, they are relatively more folivorous and arboreal than cercopithecines.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Ponginae contains a single genus, Pongo, or the orangutans, found only in Asia. There are two forms: the Sumatran orangutan and the Bornean orangutan, which likely diverged about 1.5 Ma, though their taxonomic relationship remains debated. All orangutans are extremely sexually dimorphic, with males about twice the size of females. Unlike African apes, orangutans have high rounded brain cases with poorly developed brow ridges, tall, narrow orbits set close together, and a prognathic snout with a convex premaxilla. Their molars have low cusps, covered covered in thick, pitted enamel for opening the tough cases of some fruits. Their forelimbs are very long, and their fingers very curved.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Recent molecular studies have determined that Gorilla, Homo, Pan are all so closely related to each other that they should be placed in their own subfamily: Homininae. All members of this group are primarily terrestrial, though their habitats and diets varies significantly. All have low rounded cusps on their molars, "Y-5" molar cusp patterns, and a 2.1.2.3 dental formula. Additionally, Homininae taxa have been known to exhibit some form of bipedalism, including the facultative bipedalism of Pan and Gorilla to the habitual bipedalism of Homo.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Allenopithecus, the swamp monkey, is a medium-sized cercopithecine found in western and central Africa. It lives in flooded forests, and eats primarily fruits. Little is known about its natural behaviors. Skeletally, several researchers have suggested this species is perhaps the most primitive cercopithecine.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Miopithecus, the talapoin monkey, is the smallest-bodied catarrhine. They are found in the riverine forests of western and central Africa. Up to two species may be recognized: M. ogouensis (Gabon talapoin), and M. talapoin (Angolan talapoin). They are quadrupedal walkers and runners, and exceptional leapers. They are also known to be quite adept at swimming. Anatomically, it has been suggested that talapoins are a neotenic guenon, because of their large head, large eyes and short snouts, which are characteristics of young animals.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
The patas monkey, Erythrocebus patas, is one of the most terrestrial primates. They are found in western, central, and eastern Africa. Patas monkeys are medium-sized quadrupedal walkers and runners and have slender bodies, long limbs, and long tails. They live and primarily forage in grasslands and savannahs, where they eat grass seeds, shoots, and acacia gums. They typically reside in single-male groups of up to 12 individuals.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Vervet monkeys (also known as grivets or green monkeys) are widespread throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Several distinct species may be recognized, including: Ch. aethiops, Ch. cynosuros, Ch. djamdjamensis, Ch. pygerythrus, Ch. sabaeus, and Ch. tantalus. They are semi-terrestrial quadrupeds, and inhabit both gallery forests and open savannah. Vervets eat a large variety of foods, including fruits, gums, shoots, and some invertebrates. Socially, vervets reside in large multi-male multi-female troops.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Guenons (Cercopithecus) are a diverse group of small-bodied arboreal Old World monkeys found throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Up to 19 species may be recognized. While they are all predominately arboreal, they exhibit variation in preferences for canopy level and forest type. They are frugivorous and insectivorous, and travel and forage in large groups, that are sometimes comprised of multiple guenon species. Anatomically, they have short snouts, longer legs and tails than most other cercopithecines.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Macaques are the only cercopithecine group found in Asia and Europe. They are extremely successful, and include wide-ranging species such as M.fascicularis, M.fuscata, M. nemestrina and M. mulatta. Macaques have the widest distribution of any nonhuman primate group. In part, this may be due to their generalized anatomy. They are medium-sized cercopithecines, characterized by long snouts, high-crowned molar teeth having low cusps, long third molars and simple stomachs.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
The genus Mandrillus contains two species: the Mandrill (M. sphinx) and the drills (M.leucophaeus), both found in the dense forests of western Africa. These are large-bodied cercopithecines, and males may weigh up to 30 kg. Both species are extremely sexually dimorphic. Males also exhibit brightly colored faces. Both species may be found in either single-male and multi-male groups, reaching up to 250 individuals. Anatomically, males of both species have maxillary ridges. Both sexes have fore- and hindlimbs of nearly equal length.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Cercocebus are large, forest dwelling monkeys found throughout much of western and central Africa. Up to six species may be recognized, including: C. agilis (agile mangabey), C. atys (sooty mangabey), C. chrysogaster (golden-bellied mangabey), C. galeritus (Tana River mangabey), C. sanjei (Sanje mangabey), C. torquatus (white-collared mangabey). They are primarily frugivorous, and their typically large social groups may divide up during foraging. Once considered to be in the same genus as Lophocebus, anatomically Cercocebus is distinguished by larger teeth, an upright mandibular ramus, wide interorbital space, and a long ectotympanic tube.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Lophocebus are small-bodied mangabeys found in central Africa. Two species are recognized: L. albigena and L.aterrimus. Members of this genus are predominately frugivorous and eat some invertebrates. They live in small groups of about 15 individuals. They are distinguished anatomically from Cercocebus by their smaller teeth, elongated skull, narrow interorbital space, and an inferiorly curved zygomatic arch.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Recently discovered in 2005 in southern Tanzania, this primate was once considered a species in the genus Lophocebus. The highland mangabey is now considered a separate genus, based on molecular evidence that precludes its placement in Lophocebus. Little is known about this species, but it is omnivorous, primarily arboreal but comes down to the ground to move between trees, and probably lives in multi-male multi-female groups.
Citations: Davenport et. al. 2006
Theropithecus, or the gelada baboons, are found in the the Ethiopian highlands. One species is recognized, T. gelada. Males of this species are known for their long, shaggy manes. They are sexually dimorphic, and males have very large canines. Both sexes have an hour-glass shaped red patch on their chests. They are predominately terrestrial and move by quadrupedal walking and running. Geladas live in single-male multi-female groups. Anatomically, their teeth exhibit complex foldings in the enamel; they have short snouts, and long thumbs.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Procolobus verus is the smallest-bodied colobine. It lives in the understory of swamp forests in Africa. Notably, it has the smallest thumb and largest feet of all the African colobines. It is also the most saltatory. Like other colobines, it is mainly folivorous and prefers new leaves. They live in small multi-male groups of ten to fifteen individuals.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Red colobus monkeys are medium-sized primates (5.46-8.25 kg [females] - 5.80-12.3 kg [males]) found throughout most of sub-Saharan Africa. They range through all levels of the main canopy in large multi-male multi-female groups having up to 90 animals. They prefer eating fruit, shoots, and new leaves. Typically, one species is recognized (Piliocolobus badius), with several subspecies existing. They have longer legs than their close relatives the guezeras, and are frequent leapers.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
The black-and-white colobus monkey lives in western and central Africa. Generally, one species is recognized, C. satanas. They live in large multi-male multi-female groups. Unlike other colobines, black-and-white colobus monkeys feed primarily on hard seeds. Accordingly, their teeth are large, flat and their cranium robust.
Citations: Fleagle 1999, and Sterner et al. 2006
Semnopithecus, the Hanuman or sacred langur, is found from Sri Lanka to Nepal, in a variety of habitats from tropical rain forest to deserts and cities. Until recently, all the Hanuman langurs were considered one species, S. entellus; but now, seven species are recognized including S. ajax, S. dussumieri, S. entellus, S. hector, S. hypoleucos, S. priam, and S. schistaceus. These species show considerable diversity in body size and morphology. In general, they are long-limbed, have long tails, short thumbs and long feet.
Citations: Fleagle 1999, and Groves 2005
Trachypithecus, is a widespread genus of langurs found from India to China. Of the 15 species, most are allopatric, and they are sympatric with some leaf monkeys of the genus Presbytis. As adults, they have mostly black, gray or silver fur, however infants are often bright yellow or orange. They are arboreal quadrupeds and do some leaping. Their limbs are similar in length.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Presbytis is the genus containing the leaf monkeys found east of India. They range from Indonesia to west Malaysia, living primarily in inland forests. There are at least seven species, the most well-known being P.melaophos. They are frequent arboreal quadrupedal leapers, and accordingly, have long trunks, slender arms and long legs.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
The genus Nasalis contains one species: N. larvatus. The proboscis monkey lives on Borneo, where its habitat is restricted to riverine and costal forests. They are the most sexually dimorphic of the colobines, and males are twice the size of females. Males also have large pendulous noses, whereas females have smaller turned-up noses.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Simias, the pigtailed langur or Simakobu monkey, is found off the west coast of Sumatra on the Mentawai Islands. It is a close relative of Nasalis. One genus is recognized, S. concolor. They live in both monogamous and polygynous groups. Like other colobines, they are primarily folivorous, but also eat some fruit. Similar to the female proboscis monkey, both sexes of the pigtailed langur have short, turned-up noses. They have short tails, and their fore- and hind-limbs are similar in length.
Citations: Fleagle 1999, and Whittaker et al. 2006
Pygathrix, or the Douc langurs, are found in partly deciduous forests of Vietnam, Kampuchea, and Laos. Three species may be recognized: P. cinerea (gray-shanked douc langur), P. nemaeus (red-shanked douc langur), and P. nigripes (black-shanked douc langur). Their coats are colorful. Not much is known about their behavior, but they may live in single-male and multi-male groups, which join to form larger bands. They are arboreal quadrupeds.
Citations: Fleagle 1999, and Stevens et al 2008
The golden monkey, Rhinopithecus, is the largest colobine (up to 30 kg) and among the largest of the cercopithecoids. Several species are recognized, one in Vietnam, R. avunculus, and three others in China, R. roxellana, R. brelichi, and R.bieti. The males have long hair that covers their shoulders that looks like a cape. They are strikingly sexually dimorphic, which is reflected in their locomotor modes, with males being much more terrestrial than females. In general, they have long tails, and short limbs and digits.
Citations: Fleagle 1999, and Isler and Gruter 2006
The hoolock gibbon, Hoolock, is distinguished from Hylobates, primarily by dental characteristics. Specifically, hoolock gibbons have a larger anterior fovea, a large hypoconulid, and an undeveloped central basin. Hoolock is additionally distinguished from Symphalangus and Nomascus in having a lower intermembral index, and a low, flat skull vault.
Citations: Fleagle 1999, and Mootnick and Groves 2005
All Hylobatids exhibit a specialized locomotor style that includes a rapid form of brachiation known as "ricochetal" brachiation, which is reflected in their extremely long forelimbs relative to their hindlimbs. All gibbons are found in Southeast Asia and parts of Indonesia. Nomascus, the crested gibbons, are more closely related to the siamangs, Symphalangus, than they are to the other gibbons. In general, they are distinguished from other gibbons by their shorter, thicker hair. Adult males, and juvenile males and females, have black hair. Adult females are gold or tan.
Citations: Fleagle 1999, and Mootnick 2006
The genus Hylobates contains 6 species including H. agilis, H. klossii, H .lar, H. moloch, H. muelleri, and H. pileatus. Hylobates is distinguished from the other Hylobatid genera based primarily on molecular data. Additionally, female genital swelling is noticeably more prominent in this genus compared to the other Hylobatid genera.
Citations: Fleagle 1999, Geissman 2002, and Whittaker et al. 2007
Species: S. syndactylus
Dental Formula: 2.1.2.3 / 2.1.2.3
Distribution: West Malaysia and Sumatra
Habitats: Moist primary forests; or mountain forests (H. syndactylus)
Diet: Frugivorous; sometimes leaves and small invertebrates
Locomotion: Brachiation, and slow quadrumanous climbing
Notables: No sexual dimorphism
eSkeletons Specimen: S. syndactylus (or Siamang)
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Species: P. abelli and P. pygmaeus
Dental Formula: 2.1.2.3 / 2.1.2.3
Body Mass: 35.6 - 35.8 kg (F) - 77.9 - 78.5 kg (M)
Distribution: Borneo (P.pygmaeus), Sumatra (P.abelli)
Habitats: Upland forest areas
Diet: Frugivorous, hard-object feeder
Activity patterns: Diurnal
Locomotion: Quadrumanous clambering, bimanual suspension, fist-walking
Social Systems: Solitary
Notables: The only Asian nonhuman great ape
eSkeletons Specimen: Pongo abelli
Citations: Fleagle 1999, and Xu and Arnason 1996
Species: G. gorilla
Dental Formula: 2.1.2.3 / 2.1.2.3
Body Mass: 97.5 kg (F) - 162.5 kg (M)
Distribution: Limited distribution in sub-Saharan Africa
Habitats: Tropical forests
Diet: Folivorous
Activity patterns: Diurnal
Locomotion: Arboreal and terrestial quadrupedalism (knuckle-walking) and arboreal suspension
Social Systems: Multi-Male Multi-Female, only one male sires offspring
eSkeletons Specimen: Gorilla gorilla beringei
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Species: P. paniscus and P. troglodytes
Dental Formula: 2.1.2.3 / 2.1.2.3
Body Mass: 25 kg (F) - 60 kg (M)
Distribution: Central Africa
Habitats: Varies: Dry open savannahs to closed tropical rain forests
Diet: Frugivorous (and nuts), folivorous, and faunivorous
Activity patterns: Diurnal
Locomotion: Arboreal and terrestial quadrupedalism (knuckle-walking) and arboreal suspension
Social Systems: Multi-Male Multi-Female
Notables: Use of stone tools and medicinal use of plants
eSkeletons Specimen: P. troglodytes
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Species: P. anubis (olive baboon), P. cynocephalus (yellow baboon), P. hamadryas (hamadryas baboon), P. papio (Guinea baboon), P. ursinus (chacma baboon)
Dental Formula: 2.1.2.3 / 2.1.2.3
Body Mass: 12.3 (F) - 21.8 (M)
Distribution: sub-Saharan Africa
Habitats: Forests and savannah
Diet: Omnivorous
Activity patterns: Diurnal
Locomotion: Terrestrial quadrupedalism
Social Systems: Multi-Male Multi-Female
eSkeletons Specimen: Papio cynocephalus
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Species: H. sapiens
Dental Formula: 2.1.2.3 / 2.1.2.3
Body Mass: 54 kg (F) - 83 kg (M)
Distribution: Global
Habitats: Varies
Diet: Omnivorous
Activity patterns: Varies - mostly Diurnal
Locomotion: Habitual bipedalism
Social Systems: Varies
eSkeletons Specimen: H. sapiens
Adapted from Fleagle 1999
