Infraorder
Superfamily
Family
Subfamily
Genus
Platyrrhini
Ceboidea
Cebidae
Pitheciidae
Atelidae
Callitrichinae
Cebinae
Aotinae
Callicebinae
Pitheciinae
Alouattinae
Atelinae
Callimico
Saguinus
Leontopithecus
Cebus
Aotus
Callicebus
Pithecia
Chiropotes
Cacajao
Alouatta
Lagothrix
Brachyteles
Ateles
Callithrix
Saimiri
Anthropoidea includes New and Old World monkeys, apes and humans. Fossil evidence suggests the earliest Anthropoids date to the mid-Eocene and early Oligocene in Asia and Africa. Unlike prosimians, anthropoids have a fused mandibular symphysis and frontal bone, complete prostorbital closure, larger brain, and shorter snout. Anthropoids rely less on smell than on sight and are primarily diurnal. Most anthropoids have a 2.1.2.3 or 2.1.3.3 dental formula, less procumbent incisors, hypocones on the upper molars, and semimolariform lower premolars. Some anthropoid groups exhibit canine sexual dimorphism, and nearly all have nails instead of claws.
Platyrrhines, or New World monkeys, are found in South America and date to the late Oligocene. Current consensus hypothesizes platyrrhines (or their ancestors) migrated from West Africa to South America by rafting across the Atlantic. Platyrrhini are distinguished by several characteristics, including broader nostrils than catarrhines, contact between the zygomatic and parietal bones, and a fused tympanic ring that does not extend laterally as a bony tube. They are dentally similar to catarrhines, but with a dental formula of 2.1.3.3. (or 2.1.3.2. in Callitrichids), and lack hypoconulids on the first two lower molars. Atelinae and Cebus, have prehensile or semi-prehensile tails, respectively.
Citations: Dagosto 2002, and Fleagle 1999
The taxonomic superfamily Ceboidea has been thrown into flux recently thanks to new molecular studies that have redistributed the taxa within three taxonomic families: Cebidae, Pitheciidae, and Atelidae. All ceboids are found only in the New World, probably arriving from Africa sometime during or after the Oligocene. Species vary considerably in diet, habitat, body size, and behavior, including the only nocturnal platyrrhine Aotus.
Citations: Fleagle 1999, and Wildman et al. 2009
The family Cebidae contains the subfamilies Callitrichinae, Cebinae, and Aotinae, all of which live in South and Central America. Recent genetic studies suggests these three subfamilies are more closely related to each other than to any other platyrrhine subfamily. Members of this group appear to vary considerably, including Aotus, the only nocturnal primate. Some members of this group exhibit prehensile tails.
Citations: Fleagle 1999, Schneider et al. 1996, and Wildman et al 2009
Pitheciidae is a recent taxonomic distinction that includes the subfamilies Callicebinea and Pitheciinae. Callicebinae have long been considered some of the most primitive platyrrhines, and new molecular data reveals that they and pitheciines are more closely related to each other than any other group.
Citations: Fleagle 1999, and Wildman et al 2009
Atelidae includes the Howler, spider and woolly monkeys - the largest bodied platyrrhines. Some taxonomic classifications consider Alouattinae as a sister group of Atelidae, but genetic studies suggest including howler monkeys with other atelines.
Citations: Fleagle 1999, and Wildman et al 2009
The subfamily Callitrichinae contains the marmosets, tamarins and Goeldi's monkey. These neotropical primates are the smallest New World anthropoids (under 1 kg). They have secondarily derived claws on all digits but the hallux, presumably advantageous for climbing large (relative to body size) tree trunks for feeding on insects, gums, and saps. Additionally, members of the Callitrichinae are known for their 2.1.3.2 dental formula, indicating the loss of one set of molars. Postcranially, they have relatively long trunks, tails, and legs. They are also known for their reproductive biology as many species of Callitrichinae commonly produce twins, and parental care is shared by both sexes.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
The subfamily Cebinae contains the squirrel monkeys (Saimiri) and capuchins (Cebus), grouped primarily on recent molecular studies. Within the platyrrhines, members of this subfamily are the most omnivorous. Cebus is considered to have a semi-prehensile tail that evolved in parallel to members of Atelinae. It has also been reported that juvenile squirrel monkeys show some prehensile tail abilities.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
This subfamily contains the genus Aotus, the owl monkey, perhaps most well-known for being the only nocturnal anthropoid. Like all anthropoids, however, Aotus lacks the tapetum lucidum found in many nocturnal prosimians and nonprimates. It is likely that owl monkeys secondarily evolved these nocturnal habits. These medium sized neotropical primates exhibit no marked sexual dimorphism, have relatively long legs and tails, and have a claw-like grooming nail on the second digit of both feet.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
The subfamily Callicebinae contains the Titi monkeys. These are medium-sized frugivorous and folivorous primates. Anatomically, they are similar to Aotus. However, they have relatively short snouts with simple molar teeth compared to other platyrrhines. Behaviorally, these primates live in pair-bonded (often termed "monogamous") groups, and duet to each other.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
This subfamily contains three genera: Pithecia (the sakis), Chiropotes (bearded saki), and Cacajao (uakaries). They range only throughout the Amazonia and parts of the Guianas. These medium-sized neotropical primates are characterized by distinct dental specializations for processing fruits and seeds encased in tough coverings, including large procumbent incisors, robust canines and small premolars and molars with low cusps. Cranially, their snout is slightly prognathic. Behaviorally, this subfamily displays a fission-fusion social structure, in which individuals or small groups may break off from the larger group to forage.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
The subfamily Alouattinae is often placed within the same subfamily as Atelinae. Like members of Atelinae, Alouatta (howling monkeys) have prehensile tails, and are large-bodied. The howling monkeys are perhaps best-known anatomically for their large mandibles and expanded hyoid, which forms a hollow, resonating chamber. Dentally, they have small incisors, large sexually dimorphic canines, and well developed shearing crests on the upper molars, characteristic of folivorous primates. Postcranially, their hind- and fore-limbs are relatively similar in length.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
The subfamily Atelinae contains the three largest platyrrhine genera, well-known for their long prehensile tails: Ateles, Brachyteles, and Lagothrix. Their prehensile tails have tactile pads with friction ridges similar to finger prints on the ventral surface. Species of this subfamily differ in their tail use for foraging and locomotor activities. Anatomically, the Atelinae show many similarities to extant apes in their axial skeleton, likely related to their use of suspensory behaviors. Also related to suspensory behaviors, members of Ateline often have reduced, poorly defined thumbs, which in turn allow the other four digits to form a "hook" for efficient arm-swinging during brachiation.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Callimico goeldii, or Goeldi's monkey, has a limited distribution in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. Goeldi's monkey is small-bodied exhibiting little to no sexual dimorphism, with males and females similar in color. They have been reported to live in a variety of habitats, from primary forest to the low bushes. They move primarily by leaping between tree trunks, and feed on invertebrates and some fruits. Callimico differs from other callitrichines in having a 2.1.3.3. dental formula and a small hypocone on the upper molars. Callimico resembles other callitrichines in its limb proportions, having claws, and single births.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Sanguinus, or tamarin monkeys, are the widest-spread callitrichine group found throughout Amazonia. Up to twelve species may be recognized. All are small-bodied, have long trunks, legs, and tails. They feed primarily on exudates (gum and sap from plants). They are distinguished from other callitrichines by their small, unstable social groups.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
The lion tamarins, Leontopithecus, are found in the primary rainforests of southeastern Brazil. They are the largest-bodied callitrichid. Four allopatric species are recognized: L. caissara (black-faced lion tamarin), L. chrysomelas (golden-headed lion tamarin), L. chrysopygus (black lion tamarin), and L. rosalia (golden lion tamarin). They are arboreal quadrupeds; like other callitrichines, have a 2.1.3.2. dental formula, no hypocone on the upper molars, and the presence of nails.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Capuchin monkeys, Cebus, are found in a variety of habitats throughout all South America, and are perhaps the best-known New World monkey. Four species are recognized: C. albifrons, C. olivaceus, C. capucinus, and C.apella. Capuchins live in large, multi-male multi-female groups, are medium in size, and exhibit sexual dimorphism. Dentally, Cebus have large premolars and thick enamel used to open hard nuts. They are arboreal quadrupeds with semi-prehensile tails that lacks the ventral, tactile pad found in Atelinae.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Aotus, the owl monkey, is found throughout South America. Within this broad range exists several allopatric species: A. azarae, A. hershkovitzi, A. lemurinus, A. miconax, A. nancymaae, A. nigriceps, A. trivirgatus, and A. vociferansis. Owl monkeys are perhaps best-known for being the only nocturnal anthropoid. Like all anthropoids, however, Aotus lacks the tapetum lucidum found in many nocturnal prosimians and nonprimates. It is likely that owl monkeys secondarily evolved these nocturnal habits. These medium-sized neotropical primates exhibit no marked sexual dimorphism, have relatively long legs and tails, and have a claw-like grooming nail on the second digit of both feet.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Titi monkeys, Callicebus are medium-sized frugivorous and folivorous primates. They are found in Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela and Peru. Three species are recognized: C. torquatus, C. moloch, and C. personatus. Anatomically, they are similar to Aotus. However, they have relatively short snouts with simple molar teeth compared to other platyrrhines. Behaviorally, these primates live in pair-bonded (often termed "monogamous") groups, and duet to each other.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Sakis, Pithecia, are found in the Guianas and northeastern Brazil. Five species are recognized: P. pithecia, P. albicans, P. irrorata, P. monachus, and P. aequatorialis. There is no clear evidence for habitat preference. They move about primarily by leaping, and are the most saltatory of the New World monkeys. Sakis have broad noses, bushy fur and long tails. They are the smallest-bodied pithecine (2 kg).
Citations: Fleagle 1999
The bearded saki, Chiropotes, is found in the high rain forests of Guianas and Brazil. Two species are recognized: C.satanas and C.albinasus. Bearded sakis live in large multi-male multi-female groups that often break up during the day for foraging. Compared to Pithecia, Chiropotes is larger bodied, has a more robust jaw and is known to use hindlimb suspension during feeding.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
The Uakaries, Cacajao, are found in the flooded forests of Brazil, eastern Colombia and southern Venezuela. Two species are recognized: C. melanocephalus and C. calvus. Uakaries are dietary specialists that feed on fruits with hard outer shells. They are found in multi-male multi-female groups and move about by quadrupedal walking and running. In general, Uakaries are distinguished from other pithecines in having a larger body size and short tail. The two species also are distinguished in their coloration: C.melanocephalus has black fur, while the two subspecies of C. calvus have red or white fur.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Howlers range from southern Mexico to northern Argentina. The six species (A. palliata, A. seniculus, A. caraya, A. fusca, A. pigra, A. belzebul) are allopatric, and a considerable amount of hybridization and mixed groupings is known to occur. Like other atelines, howling monkeys are large-bodied (6-10 kg) with prehensile tails. Howling monkeys are perhaps best-known anatomically for their large mandibles and expanded hyoid, which forms a hollow, resonating chamber. They have small incisors, large sexually dimorphic canines, and well developed shearing crests on the upper molars characteristic of folivorous primates. Postcranially, their hind- and fore-limbs are relatively similar in length.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Two species of woolly monkeys, Lagothrix, are recognized. L. lagotricha is found in Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia and Venezuela, and has a more widespread geographic range than L. flavicaudata, which is restricted to Peru. They prefer rain forest habitats, and feed primarily on mature fruit pulp. They are arboreal quadrupeds, and like other atelines, have a prehensile tail.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Brachyteles, the woolly spider monkey or Muriqui, is the largest-bodied neotropical platyrrhine. It has a limited range throughout southeastern Brazil and is endangered. While living in large multi-male multi-female groups, they split into smaller groups during the day to forage. Like other Atelines, Brachyteles has a long, prehensile tail. It resembles Ateles in limb proportions and having a greatly reduced thumb.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Spider monkeys range geographically from the Yucatan peninsula through Amazonia. They live in large multi-male multi-female groups that often break down into smaller groups for foraging. Spider monkeys are highly suspensory arborealists (resembling gibbons in some respects) and use their tail as a fifth limb for feeding and traveling through the upper levels of main rain forest canopy. They lack an external thumb.
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Species: C. jacchus, C. humeralifer, C. argentata
Dental Formula: 2.1.3.2./2.1.3.2.
Body Mass: 0.362 (M) - 0.381 (F)
Distribution: South of the Amazon and Madeira rivers (Brazil), edge of Bolivia
Habitats: dry forests, edge habitats, secondary forest
Diet: Fruits, insects and exudates
Activity patterns: Diurnal
Locomotion: Arboreal quadrupedalism
Social Systems: Multi-Male, One Female
Notables: Unique dental formula, one molar less then other platyrrhines (and anthropoids)
eSkeletons Specimen: Callithrix jacchus
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Species: S. boliviensis, S. oerstedii, S. sciureus, S.ustus, and S.vanzolinii
Dental Formula: 2.1.3.3./2.1.3.3.
Body Mass: 0.680 (F) - 0.897 (M)
Distribution: Panama, Costa Rica through Amazon
Habitats: Rain forest, riverine and seconday forest
Diet: Frugivorous and insectivorous
Activity patterns: Diurnal
Locomotion: Arboreal quadrupedalism
eSkeletons Specimen: Saimiri oerstedii
Citations: Fleagle 1999
Adapted from Fleagle 1999
